The following material is taken from the following source:

Moore-Jansen, P.M., S.D. Ousley, and R.L. Jantz.  Data Collection Procedures for Forensics Skeletal Material: Report of Investigations no. 48.  The University of Tennessee, Knoxville: Department of Anthropology. 1994.

1.       Alare (al): The most laterally positioned point on the anterior margin of the nasal aperture. This point should be marked on both the right and left sides of the nasal aperture (after Bass 1971:60; Howells 1973:176).

2.       Alveolon (alv): The point where the midline of the palate is intersected by a straight tangent connecting the posterior borders of the alveolar crests.  This point is used in the measurement of maxillo-alveolar length and is determined in practice, as the point where the mid-sagittal plane intersects a wire needle placed against the posterior margins of the alveolar processes of the maxilla (Martin 1956:451).

3.       Auriculare (au): It is defined as a point on the lateral aspect of the root of the zygomatic process at the deepest incurvature, wherever it may be.

4.       Basion (ba): The point where the anterior margin of the foramen magnum is intersected by the mid-sagittal plane. The point is located on the inner border of the anterior margin of the foramen magnum directly opposite of Opisthion. In rare cases, the determination of the position of Basion may be made difficult by a thickening of the anterior margin. In height measurements of the braincase, Basion is positioned somewhat farther onto the underside of the margin of the foramen magnum (hypobasion), so that the observer may distinguish between an inferior and a posterior Basion for reasons of convenience and technical demands (Martin 1956:446).

5.       Bregma (b): The point where the sagittal and coronal sutures meet. In those cases where the most anterior segment of the sagittal suture deflects to one side, the point of the junction of the two sutures must be projected. Bregma is impossible to determine exactly on children’s crania with open fontanelles, skulls with “Fontanelle” bones, and in skulls with total obliteration of the sutures. In the latter case it may be possible to see existing traces of the sutures by slightly moistening the area. In case of the presence of a “Fontanelle” bone, a straight extension of the sagittal suture is drawn across the forehead while a similar connection is drawn between the two Sections of the coronal suture. Bregma is positioned at the point of intersection of these two imaginary lines or extensions (Martin 1956:444).

6.       Candylion (cdl): The most lateral points of the mandibular condyles (Martin1956:452).

7.       Dacryon (d): The point on the medial border of the orbit at which the frontal, lacrimal, and maxilla intersect. In other words, Dacryon lies at the intersection of the lacrimomaxillary suture and the frontal bone. There is often a small foramen at this point (Martin 1956:450).

8.       Ectoconchion (ec): The intersection of the most anterior surface of the lateral border of the orbit and a line bisecting the orbit along its long axis.  To mark Ectoconchion, move a toothpick or other thin straight instrument up and down, keeping it parallel to the superior orbital border, until you divide the eye orbit into two equal halves. Mark the point on the anterior orbital margin with a pencil (Howells 1973: 168).

9.       Ectomolare (ecm): The most lateral point on the lateral surface of the alveolar crest. This point is generally positioned on the alveolar margin of the second maxillary molar.

10.     Euryon (eu): The most laterally positioned point on the side of the braincase.  Euryon always falls on either the parietal bone or on the upper portion of the temporal bone and may be determined only by measuring maximum cranial breadth. The area of the root of the zygomatic arch, the supra-mastoid crest, and the entire adjacent region above the external auditory meatus, which sometimes exhibit excessive symmetrical lateral expansion, should be avoided when determining the position of Euryon (Martin 1956:447).

11.     Frontomalare temporale (fmt): The most laterally positioned point on the fronto-malar suture (Martin 1956:451).

12.     Frontotemporale (ft): A point located generally forward and inward on the superior temporal line directly above the zygomatic process of the frontal bone (Martin1956:451).

13.     Glabella (g): The most forwardly projecting point in the mid-sagittal plane at the lower margin of the frontal bone, which lies above the nasal root and between the superciliary arches. the point of Glabella is depressed between the confining bony ridges, and is often delineated superiorly by a shallow gutter or a transversely running indentation on the surface of the frontal bone. Note that in juvenile skulls with strongly forwardly vaulted foreheads, the most projecting point of the curve of the forehead is not that of Glabella. However, its position is still possible to determine (Martin 1956:442-443).

14.     Gnathion (gn): The lowest point on the inferior margin of the mandibular body in the mid-sagittal plane. Frequently, Gnathion is not the most inferiorly located point of the mandible, as the more laterally placed elements of the mandible may be extending far more inferiorly. This is particularly the case in mandibles with broad and square chin development (Martin 1956:452).

15.     Gonion (go): The point on the mandible where the inferior margin of the mandibular corpus and the posterior margin of the ramus meet, i.e. the point on the mandibular angle which is directed most inferiorly, posteriorly, and laterally. If the mandibular angle is not pronounced, position the mandible with the angle facing upward, so that the right and left posterior margin of the mandibular body declines inferiorly into horizontal lines. Gonion is positioned at the highest point of the curvature. When measuring the bi-Gonial diameter the most lateral position of the angles should be chosen as measuring points (Martin1956:452).

16.     Infradentale (id): The point between the lower incisor teeth where the anterior margins of the alveolar processes are intersected by the mid-sagittal plane. The point corresponds to the antero-superior limit of the fetal symphyseal suture (Martin 1956:452).

17.     Lambda (I): The point where the two branches of the lambdoidal suture meet with the sagittal suture. The determination of this point is uncertain in cases with strongly serrated sutures, as well as cases where sutures are totally obliterated. Locating Lambda may be further complicated in crania with Wormian or sutural bones at the apex of the occipital squama. In such cases the general direction of the two branches of the lambdoidal sutures is determined and two straight lines are projected along the branches of the suture placing Lambda at the point where these lines meet with one another and with the sagittal suture (Martin 1956:444).

18.     Nasion (n): The point of intersection of the nasofrontal suture and the mid-sagittal plane. Nasion corresponds to the nasal root (Martin 1956:448).

19.     Nasospinale (ns): The lowest point on the inferior margin of the nasal aperture as projected in the mid-sagittal plane. In crania with slight to moderate development of the anterior nasal spine, this point is easily determined by connecting the lowest point on the inferior margin of the nasal aperture right and left of the nasal spine. Nasospinale is located wherever this line is intersected by the mid-sagittal plane at the base of the nasal spine. If the nasal spine is well developed, mark the point of Nasospinale on the lateral wall of the projecting nasal spine. However, if the nasal spine is at or below the line connecting the lowest point on the inferior margins of the aperture lowest point on the Nasospinale is found on the upper margin of the nasal spine (Martin 1956:448).

20.     Opisthocranion (op): The most posteriorly protruding point on the back of the braincase, located in the mid-sagittal plane. Opisthocranion almost always fall on the superior squama of the occipital bone, and only occasionally on the external occipital protuberance. Opisthocranion can generally be established while obtaining the measurement of maximum cranial length. However, in some cases where the superior squama forms a partial sphere with Glabella as its midpoint, opisthocranion cannot be determined in this manner. In such cases, each point on the partial sphere represents the maximum distance and opisthocranion is located arbitrarily approximately at a point in the middle of the spherical segment (Martin 1956:445).

21.     Opisthion (o): The point at which the mid-sagittal plane intersects the posterior margin of the foramen magnum. Opisthion is located on the inner border of the posterior margin of the foramen magnum facing Basion (Martin 1956:446).

22.     Prosthion (pr): The most anterior point on the alveolar border of the maxilla between the central incisors in the mid-sagittal plane. Note that in measuring Basion-Prosthion length and palate length, Prosthion is not positioned on the inferior margin of the advanced bony parts between the incisors, but is more anteriorly located on the anterior surface of the alveolar process. In measuring upper facial height, however, Prosthion is located on the inferior tip of the alveolar process. In cases of a defective or resorbed alveolar process, determination of Prosthion becomes uncertain or impossible, and upper facial height cannot be measured (Martin 1956:449).

23.     Zygion (zy): The most laterally positioned point on the zygomatic arches. The position of Zygion is defined from the measurement of bi-zygomatic breadth (Martin1956:450).

The Skull: Additional Landmarks

The following material is taken from the following source, it has been edited to reduce redundancy:

Burns, K.R. Forensic Anthropology Training Manual.  Prentice Hall: New Jersey.  1999.

Alveolare—the lowest single point on the bony septum between the upper central incisors. This can be confused with Infradentale, which is the comparable point between the lower central incisors. It is used to measure upper facial height.

Apex—the highest single point on the frontal section defined by left and right Porion with the skull oriented to the Frankfort Plane. The apex is posterior to Bregma.

Endobasion—the single point at the posterior margin of the anterior border of the foramen magnum. It is usually internal to Basion. It is used for facial measurements, not cranial height.

Endomolare—a paired point on the lingual surface of the alveolar process at the location of the second molar. It is used to measure palatal width.

Incision—the single point at the incisal level of the upper central incisors; the lower edge of the upper central incisors.

 Inion—a single point at the intersection of the left and right supe­rior nuchal lines. It is at the base of the external occipital protu­berance, and there may be a slight projection of bone at this point.

Lacrimale—a paired point on the medial wall of the orbit at the intersection of the posterior lacrimal crest and the frontolacrimal suture. It is posterior to Dacryon and maxillofrontale.

Lambda—the single point at the intersection of the sagittal suture and the lambdoidal suture.

Mastoidale—a paired point at the inferior tip of the mastoid process. It is used to measure mastoid length.

Maxillofrontale—a paired point at the intersection of the anterior lacrimal crest (on the frontal process of the maxilla) and the frontomaxillary suture. It is on the medial margin of the orbit and can be used to measure orbital width.

Orale—the single most anterior point on the hard palate where a line drawn lingual to the central incisors intersects the palatal suture. It is used to measure palatal length.

Orbitale—a paired point at the lowest part of the orbital margin. It is used to define the Frankfort Plane and to measure orbital height.

Pogonion—the most anterior single point on the midsagittal plane of the mandible; the front of the chin.

Porion—paired points at the most lateral part of the superior margin of the external auditory meatus. It is used to define the Frankfort Plane and to measure mastoid length.

Pterion—a paired point on the upper end of the greater wing of the sphenoid. This is more often a region than a point.

Staphylion—the single point on the posterior hard palate where the palatal suture is crossed by a line drawn tangent to the curves of the posterior margin of the palatal bones. It is used to measure palatal length.

Vertex—the highest single point on the midsagittal section of the skull when positioned in the Frankfort Plane.

*Nota Bene.  Burns (1999) does not provide abbreviations for the listed landmarks, she is, however, the source for the following images.

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