General Psychology
Introduction

(I) Introduction

• Class Roll
• Class Syllabus
• Class Projects

(II) What is psychology?

• Defined: The scientific study of mind and behavior.
• Relationship to other sciences (overhead).
• Perspectives: Neuroscience (decade of the brain in 1980's), evolutionary, behavior genetics (decade of genes in 1990's), behavioral, cognitive, social-cultural.
• Types of psychologists (overheads).

(III) Scientific psychology:

"compared to reality, science is primitive and childlike, but it's the most precious thing we have" A. Einstein

-See text: Lots of proposals/claims! Why do we claim that shyness is related to genetics but not astrological sign? Why do we claim that human evolution, not divine creation, provided basic sex differences? Why do we claim that perception is based on known sensory processing but don't include psychic phenomena?

• Relationship between Fact and Theory
  • Facts (observation that is reliable, objective, universal)
  • Theory (explanation of facts: simple, consistent with what is already known, and no alternative explanations for the facts). 
  • Used to describe, predict, explain, and control behavior.
• Theories provide hypotheses which facts support or refute.
  • Theories are developed and tested with the data collected from research
  • Reseach is conducted in various ways (designs) each with its strengths and weaknesses. 
    

Research Designs:

Methods used by psychologists to gather facts to test specific theories.

Lets use Anxiety as an example of a psychological phenomenon worth investigating.

(A) Descriptive: behavioral, observation, case study, survey, naturalistic.

• These descriptive designs first begin with measuring anxiety. Anxiety is then measured and described in behavioral terms, through observation, via case study, and/or in naturalistic contexts.

(B) Correlation (Prediction): The most common design. The design is also descriptive but is more complex in that two or more variables are compared for their association or relationship. Below are various correlation studies meant to support or refute various theories.

•   Genetic threory: Twin studies, with MZA compared to MZT, DTA, DTT. Adoption studies where subjects, adoptive parents, and biological parents are all tested for anxiety. 
• Brain chemistry theory: compare brain chemistries between anxious and non anxious people. 
• Learning theory: correlate subject with parents anxiety. 
• Astrology: compare birth place and time with anxiety.

    Note that correlations can be used for prediction but not causation.

(C) Experiment (Explain and control): One variable is deliberately manipulated (independent variable) to see if the other variable (dependent variable) changes. Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental group and control. Note random assignment and placebo.

How to answer Why questions regarding psychological phenomena

*Discussion:

1. Why do people suffer from anxiety?
2. Why do we sleep?
3. Why are women hardier than men?

• Teleological (confusion effect with cause) e.g.,"aids in survival"
• Proximate: immediate environmental/biological stimulus
• Ultimate: evolutionary adaptation from selection
  

Open minded skepticism (or how to think like a psychologist)

1. Tolerate uncertainty.
2. Evaluate the source of the claim (expert, self serving)
3. Question all claims. What is the quality of the evidence? E.g., testimonials
4. Avoid oversimplification and overgeneralization.
5. Caution in using personal experience as the criterion of truth.