General Psychology

Learning Theories

"A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience"

1. Classical conditioning (stimulus/response)
   

• Learning based on association

• Pavlov and dogs/ Watson and Little Albert

• Theory:

  • UCS (meat or loud noise) evokes UCR (salivation or cry)

  • UCS paired with neutral stimulus (meat paired with bell)

  • Neutral stimulus becomes CS (bell or white animal)

• Everyday examples: likes and dislikes for products, people, places.

• Related concepts:

  • Stimulus generalization- e.g., Albert and all white animals

  • Extinction- e.g., Albert presented with animal and no noise

  • Counterconditioning- e.g., treatment of phobias (systematic desensitization) and habits (aversion therapy)

    2.    Operant conditioning (response/stimulus)

• Learning based on consequences

• Skinner and rats/pigeons

• Theory: Consequences either increase or decrease a preceding behavior. Consequences that increase the frequency of the behavior are called reinforcers, while consequences that decrease the frequency of the behavior are called punishers.

• Reinforcement

  • Positive: Providing or adding a desired stimulus. E.g., pellet for a rat, candy for a child.

    • Superstition- random or coincidental stimuli

    • Primary and secondary reinforcers- e.g., food and money

    • Schedules- fixed ratio and interval, variable ratio and interval

    • Shaping- successive approximations

  • Negative: Removing or subtracting an undesired stimulus. E.g., rat presses bar to stop shock, parent gives a child candy to stop child crying.

    • Escape- cause negative stimulus to stop (eat to stop hunger)

    • Avoidance- prevent aversive stimulus

• Punishment

  • Positive: Providing or adding an aversive stimulus. E.g., spanking a child to decrease his/her naughty behavior

  • Negative: Remove or subtract a desired stimulus. E.g., time-out from rewarding environment

    3.    Cognitive or Social Learning

• Insight: Sultan the chimp solves problem in a flash

• Observational learning (Bandura): Observing others whom we imitate who get reinforced or punished. E.g., media aggression and sexuality

    4.    Specialized Ecological Learning

• Fear acquisition- animals, strangers, dark, heights

• Spatial memory- females > location for objects, males> spatial relation for mazes

• Westermarch incest avoidance