General Psychology
Thinking and Language

(1)    Introduction

• Mental representations of nature to solve problems

• Mind is a system of organs of computation that allowed our ancestors to understand and outsmart objects, animals, plants, and each other.

• Intuitive Theories: (video #4 Pinker)

  • physics- how objects follow laws e.g., bounce

  • biology- concept for life and its species

  • engineering- tools and artifacts

  • psychology- theory of mind

(2)     Problem solving

• Mental groupings are called concepts.

  • concepts can be hierarchical as basic, subordinate, and superordinate categories

  • simplify by using a prototype

• Trial and error: randomly attempting solutions until one works

• Algorithm: systematic, slow, but very accurate methods to determine the correct solution. Examples: DSM IV and HIV exercise in base rate

• Heuristics:  "rules of thumb" faster than algorithms but more error prone

  • availability heuristic: based on available memory (word-of-mouth, observations)

  • representative heuristic: use of prototypes and stereotypes to make judgments (e.g., construction worker poet)

• Interference

  • confirmation bias: search for information the confirms our ideas (e.g., how do we test our idea to the underlying rule to 2...4...6...?

  • fixation: inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

  • overconfidence: tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments

  • belief perseverance: clinging to ideas in the face of contrary evidence because the explanation we accepted as valid lingers in our minds (e.g., deception studies)

(3)      Language                                      

• Symbol system used to communicate

  • generativity: creation of meaningful communication based on shared sounds

  • displacement: awareness that utterance can refer to objects, ideas, places, and time

  • rules (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics)

• Rules of language

  •  Phonology: The basic sounds of a language.  English has from 35-40.  Probable sensitive period before age 12.

  • Morphology: The basic sounds of a language that have meaning (thousands) (e.g., cat) Appears usually by first year. (e.g., milk, mama, dada)

  •  Syntax: Rules for combining words into sentences. (e.g., It (singular) don't (plural) make sense (poor) vs it doesn't make sense (good).

  •  Semantics: Rules referring to the meaningfulness of sentences.  'Your fish called and said they missed their flight.' *Note differences between surface and deep structure.

  •  Pragmatics: Rules about social interactions

• Theories of language

  • Biological Approach:

    • Strong evidence that evolution shaped humans to used language probably around 30-50,000 YA

    • All people learn languages which have similar rules are equally complex *(Chomsky's LAD)

    • Specialized brain functions: Left temporal Lobe, and speaking apparatus (vocal cords)

    • Sensitive period (2-12 years)

  • Learning Theories

    • As a behavior, language is learned through conditioning

    • Support in that parents train and influence the child's selection, use, and fluency with words. Seen both within and between cultures.

  • Cognitive Theories

    • Language is intertwined with cognitive development according to Piaget and especially Vygotsky.

    • Information Processing notes the strategies used. Rules may mistakenly result in overextensions (overgeneralize), underextension (fail to generalize), and misuse rule for plurals (e.g., foots).

  • Social Interaction Approach

    • Acknowledge the importance of biology while advocating the role of mature, expert speakers. Remember­language is communication between two people.

    • Emphasize the importance of zone of proximal development and the natural way adults enter that zone to both empathize and stretch the child's vocabulary (e.g., motherese)

    • Adults also stress the importance of utterances.  That language is to be taken seriously, it's meaningful

• Stages of language development

  • Newborns:  prefers human voices, discriminates among phonemes, cries

  • 1-4 mos: Sensitive to prosodic features (intonation, stress) and coos (vowels and consonants)

  • 6 mos: Babbling (vowel, consonant combined)

  • 9-12 mos: gestures to communicate

  • 12-18 mos: One-word utterances, comprehends 50+ words (Note: receptive vs productive vocabulary differences)

  • 1 8-24 mos: Vocabulary spurt

  • 24 mos: Two-word utterances

  • 21/2 to 5 yrs: Three word utterances, increasing sophistication in syntax and semantics, growth in vocabulary (6-20 words per day, total of 10,000 words)

  • 6 yrs+: Use of metalinguistic skills (play with words, use of humor and jokes e.g., bear behind)

*Individual differences: Much variation in language development both a function of genetic predisposition and environment (verbosity of parents and directive vs interactive use of language in family)